Introduction
At a time when Africa’s strategic significance has been growing, there has been increasing interest in establishing cooperation and contributing to the peace, security, and development of African nations. In this regard, strengthening cooperation in trade, culture, and military cooperation has become crucial. Given that security is intertwined with development, many middle powers are competing to strengthen relations with African countries. While these powers strategize cooperation, military cooperation is an important instrument in enhancing security ties. Türkiye’s foreign policy discourse often emphasizes seeking global peace, reinforcing political and economic relations with the Global South, engaging in peacekeeping operations, and strengthening military relations.
The role of the military in Turkish foreign policy is by no means a new concern. However, the multiple roles – reassurance, protection, and shaping – that Türkiye signals in its engagement in Africa are a novelty for Türkiye’s proactive foreign policy behavior as it redefines Türkiye’s military presence on the continent. Predominantly seen as a colonizing agent during the Ottoman era, Türkiye’s military presence, during and post-colonization, was limited to concerns about geopolitics and NATO’s strategy to deter the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War, the outbreak of the new security environment witnessed the expansion of Turkish defense diplomacy in line with the decision to engage in UN peace operations. Consequently, the transformation of military culture and defense diplomacy, carried out with a foreign policy vision, aimed at cooperation in creating regional stability, unlike its classical perception, focused on the strategic interests of Africa. Such an interest has brought about a symbolic transformation in which the Turkish military has become a carrier of Türkiye’s characteristic features: cosmopolitanism, cultural diversity, and tolerance.
The deployment of Turkish soldiers for peace support operations in Africa has dramatically increased over recent years. In respect to its scale and ramifications, such a military presence can be considered a topic with global repercussions; it is intertwined with a variety of international, especially strategic and military, realities. This paper brings about various dimensions, contexts, and understandings of Türkiye's military presence in Africa by trying to redefine Ankara's new roles and engagements on the continent. Neither troops deployed abroad for international peace, security, and humanitarian support operations conducted by Türkiye's Ministry of National Defence nor the country's domination in the scope of defense and security in the continent is decreasing. On the contrary, there is an increasing trend in both aspects. Likewise, Türkiye's positive role in the region dates back a long time. The question of "so what?" needs a two-part answer: the military and the strategic. Ankara's engagements are more than deploying and/or keeping troops in Africa. Also, these roles and services are, directly or indirectly, connected with many elements ranging from the country's trade to economic and political backgrounds.
A complete and comprehensive study on Turkish military presence in Africa, especially along Türkiye's political and strategic interests and tendencies in the continent, necessitates delving into the intricacies of the country's diplomacy, foreign policies, and international relations concerning Africa. It is imperative to point out that these phenomena are multifaceted in nature, encompassing both internal and external implications. In order to facilitate a more thorough and coherent understanding, it becomes necessary to break down the military presence into smaller components, including strategic and military engagement, the invaluable guidance provided by military and security advisors, the progressive expansion of trade and investments with ambitious undertones, as well as the provision of technical and developmental aid. The utilization of this approach not only helps comprehend the intricacies of the strategy, but also addresses any perceived ambiguity and intricacy. Hence, it becomes of utmost importance to provide a concise overview of the military and strategic context or presence. To efficiently accomplish this, an examination of the historical background becomes imperative. By exploring various trends and challenges that the country has encountered over time, we are able to lay a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis. Consequently, the evaluation of "military presence in Africa" within the context delineated above will be expounded upon within the three distinct sections of this present paper.
Historical Context of Turkish-African Relations
Türkiye's presence in Africa dates back to the period when the Ottoman-Egyptian administration had widespread relations on the continent in the 19th century. Tens of thousands of Ottoman forces, especially in Egypt, built many buildings, bridges, railways, and roads and contributed to the economy. Some of them, however, had negative relations, such as Sudan's annexation of Egypt, the failure of the Ottoman-Egyptian currency to be accepted, and British military interventions.[1] As a reflection of this, the military, like the civilians, faced political pressures on the grounds of Islam and the Turks. It was the Ottoman Empire that had official state relations with the African continent, which is known for the fight against colonialism in 40 Islamic countries in the 20th century.[2] Reliability for Africa reveals the untold background of the historical aspect of Turkish-European-African relations.[3] As the events in the mid-1900s were shaped politically, the Turkish-Ummah-sensitive movement increased its aid policy for more than 40 years and led this period. The activities in Africa were shaped by Islamic sensitivity and political aims against communism. In Africa, where political conflicts and military confrontations have recently become widespread, there is economic potential to be influential in many areas. Current issues can gain different dimensions because of historical depth. Due to the bilateral and present-day relationships of the countries on the continent, historical experiences have recently become influential factors for new partnerships. Dynamisms between countries were previously not at the bilateral level, but at the level of two continents. In the last 15 years, the historical partnership experience of Türkiye’s and some African countries has turned into opportunities in bilateral and economic relations.[4] The fact that no military intervention was carried out against African countries, which were once colonized by European states, generates trust. Political support was also significant in government changes. As a result, the number of Turkish-Iranian military training cooperations has been increasing in recent years with joint training with African countries decided every year by the Turkish General Staff.[5] The growing presence of Türkiye’s in Africa has sparked interest and raised eyebrows among international observers. The historical ties between the Ottoman Empire and the African continent have paved the way for multifaceted engagements in the modern era. Türkiye’s instrumental role in the fight against colonialism and its support for independence movements in African nations have fostered strong bonds, rooted in a shared history of struggle and resilience.
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, Africa's political conflicts and military disputes have seen a surge in recent times. Yet, amidst these challenges, Türkiye’s economic potential remains a beacon of hope for many sectors across the continent. With a deep understanding of historical depth, current issues gain unique dimensions, providing fertile ground for new partnerships to emerge. Gone are the days when dynamics between countries were limited to bilateral interactions; Türkiye’s and Africa now operate at the nexus of two continents.
Over the past 15 years, Türkiye’s historical partnerships with select African countries have blossomed into mutually beneficial bilateral and economic relationships. The absence of military interventions against African nations, once subjected to European colonization, signifies a trust that has been fostered and earned. Furthermore, Türkiye’s unwavering political support during times of governance changes has been pivotal in facilitating smooth transitions. As a testament to this solid foundation, the Turkish General Staff has increasingly engaged in joint military training exercises with African countries, further solidifying cooperation and collaboration. Turkey's role in Africa continues to evolve and expand, marked by a commitment to bolstering the continent's growth and development.[6] With each passing year, new avenues for cooperation are explored, strengthening the bonds between Türkiye’s and its African partners.[7] As political landscapes shift and new challenges arise, Türkiye’s remains steadfast in its dedication to forging inclusive and impactful relationships that benefit both nations. The journey towards a prosperous and interconnected future for Türkiye’s and Africa has only just begun, promising a wealth of opportunities for shared progress and mutual understanding.
Evolution of Turkish Military Engagement in Africa
For years, Türkiye's military engagement in the vast continent of Africa was largely limited to contributions to peacekeeping forces and involvement in various humanitarian projects. However, with Türkiye's new and dynamic foreign policy approach, the role of the Turkish Armed Forces in Africa has undergone a significant redefinition. This redefinition of Türkiye's military involvement in Africa took a monumental leap forward with the Somali operations and the highly notable Operation Thunderbolt.[8] In the pivotal year of 2015, in response to an internal political crisis in Somalia which necessitated the effective withdrawal of Turkish troops from the region, Türkiye embarked on an unprecedented endeavor by deploying soldiers to the sovereign state of Qatar. It was during this time that Türkiye successfully established its first-ever military base on Qatari soil.[9] Surpassing all previous endeavors, Türkiye's base in Qatar stands as the fifth and largest Turkish military base situated outside the borders of Türkiye itself. This remarkable base was established long before the occurrence of the military coup attempt; however, its magnitude and influence experienced substantial expansion and enhancement in the immediate aftermath of the failed coup plot.
After a slow and calculated initiation, Türkiye has remarkably expanded its comprehensive military presence in the vast and fertile lands of Africa. Over the course of the past four years, the nation has undertaken numerous noteworthy military ventures, forging strong alliances with a myriad of local, regional, and international partners.[10] Demonstrating a visionary strategy of "train and build", Türkiye's endeavors in Africa have predominantly centered around the invaluable aspect of military training and education, yielding remarkable results.[11] Türkiye's dynamic military prowess in Africa has manifested itself in diverse aspects and from various perspectives, solidifying its position as a formidable force. Prior to this remarkable transformation, Türkiye exercised cautious restraint in terms of projecting hard power. However, spurred by the paramount importance of safeguarding the region's stability, the country's Armed Forces have undergone a paradigm shift, actively engaging in a multitude of activities.[12] This robust engagement includes joint drills of utmost significance, fostering invaluable intelligence and security cooperation, establishing extensive military coordination mechanisms, forging technical military agreements, and unyielding dedication in resolving the operational conflicts plaguing Libya.[13] These awe-inspiring developments have unequivocally emanated from Ankara's overarching approach which necessitates an extensive evaluation of its international role and unreserved commitment to militaristic endeavors. Evidently, Türkiye's dedication towards these principles has led to its expanded involvement in colossal geographical spaces, proficiently allowing the nation to exert its influence in a far-reaching and holistic manner, leaving an indelible mark on the African continent.
The deployment of Turkish soldiers for peace support operations in Africa has dramatically increased over recent years. In respect to its scale and ramifications, such a military presence can be considered a topic with global repercussions; it is intertwined with a variety of international, especially strategic and military, realities. This paper brings about various dimensions, contexts, and understandings of Türkiye's military presence in Africa by trying to redefine Ankara's new roles and engagements on the continent. Neither troops deployed abroad for international peace, security, and humanitarian support operations conducted by Türkiye's Ministry of National Defence nor the country's domination in the scope of defense and security in the continent is decreasing. On the contrary, there is an increasing trend in both aspects. Likewise, Türkiye's positive role in the region dates back a long time. The question of "so what?" needs a two-part answer: the military and the strategic. Ankara's engagements are more than deploying and/or keeping troops in Africa. Also, these roles and services are, directly or indirectly, connected with many elements ranging from the country's trade to economic and political backgrounds.
A complete and comprehensive study on Turkish military presence in Africa, especially along Türkiye's political and strategic interests and tendencies in the continent, necessitates delving into the intricacies of the country's diplomacy, foreign policies, and international relations concerning Africa. It is imperative to point out that these phenomena are multifaceted in nature, encompassing both internal and external implications. In order to facilitate a more thorough and coherent understanding, it becomes necessary to break down the military presence into smaller components, including strategic and military engagement, the invaluable guidance provided by military and security advisors, the progressive expansion of trade and investments with ambitious undertones, as well as the provision of technical and developmental aid. The utilization of this approach not only helps comprehend the intricacies of the strategy, but also addresses any perceived ambiguity and intricacy. Hence, it becomes of utmost importance to provide a concise overview of the military and strategic context or presence. To efficiently accomplish this, an examination of the historical background becomes imperative. By exploring various trends and challenges that the country has encountered over time, we are able to lay a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis. Consequently, the evaluation of "military presence in Africa" within the context delineated above will be expounded upon within the three distinct sections of this present paper.
Historical Context of Turkish-African Relations
Türkiye's presence in Africa dates back to the period when the Ottoman-Egyptian administration had widespread relations on the continent in the 19th century. Tens of thousands of Ottoman forces, especially in Egypt, built many buildings, bridges, railways, and roads and contributed to the economy. Some of them, however, had negative relations, such as Sudan's annexation of Egypt, the failure of the Ottoman-Egyptian currency to be accepted, and British military interventions.[1] As a reflection of this, the military, like the civilians, faced political pressures on the grounds of Islam and the Turks. It was the Ottoman Empire that had official state relations with the African continent, which is known for the fight against colonialism in 40 Islamic countries in the 20th century.[2] Reliability for Africa reveals the untold background of the historical aspect of Turkish-European-African relations.[3] As the events in the mid-1900s were shaped politically, the Turkish-Ummah-sensitive movement increased its aid policy for more than 40 years and led this period. The activities in Africa were shaped by Islamic sensitivity and political aims against communism. In Africa, where political conflicts and military confrontations have recently become widespread, there is economic potential to be influential in many areas. Current issues can gain different dimensions because of historical depth. Due to the bilateral and present-day relationships of the countries on the continent, historical experiences have recently become influential factors for new partnerships. Dynamisms between countries were previously not at the bilateral level, but at the level of two continents. In the last 15 years, the historical partnership experience of Türkiye’s and some African countries has turned into opportunities in bilateral and economic relations.[4] The fact that no military intervention was carried out against African countries, which were once colonized by European states, generates trust. Political support was also significant in government changes. As a result, the number of Turkish-Iranian military training cooperations has been increasing in recent years with joint training with African countries decided every year by the Turkish General Staff.[5] The growing presence of Türkiye’s in Africa has sparked interest and raised eyebrows among international observers. The historical ties between the Ottoman Empire and the African continent have paved the way for multifaceted engagements in the modern era. Türkiye’s instrumental role in the fight against colonialism and its support for independence movements in African nations have fostered strong bonds, rooted in a shared history of struggle and resilience.
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, Africa's political conflicts and military disputes have seen a surge in recent times. Yet, amidst these challenges, Türkiye’s economic potential remains a beacon of hope for many sectors across the continent. With a deep understanding of historical depth, current issues gain unique dimensions, providing fertile ground for new partnerships to emerge. Gone are the days when dynamics between countries were limited to bilateral interactions; Türkiye’s and Africa now operate at the nexus of two continents.
Over the past 15 years, Türkiye’s historical partnerships with select African countries have blossomed into mutually beneficial bilateral and economic relationships. The absence of military interventions against African nations, once subjected to European colonization, signifies a trust that has been fostered and earned. Furthermore, Türkiye’s unwavering political support during times of governance changes has been pivotal in facilitating smooth transitions. As a testament to this solid foundation, the Turkish General Staff has increasingly engaged in joint military training exercises with African countries, further solidifying cooperation and collaboration. Turkey's role in Africa continues to evolve and expand, marked by a commitment to bolstering the continent's growth and development.[6] With each passing year, new avenues for cooperation are explored, strengthening the bonds between Türkiye’s and its African partners.[7] As political landscapes shift and new challenges arise, Türkiye’s remains steadfast in its dedication to forging inclusive and impactful relationships that benefit both nations. The journey towards a prosperous and interconnected future for Türkiye’s and Africa has only just begun, promising a wealth of opportunities for shared progress and mutual understanding.
Evolution of Turkish Military Engagement in Africa
For years, Türkiye's military engagement in the vast continent of Africa was largely limited to contributions to peacekeeping forces and involvement in various humanitarian projects. However, with Türkiye's new and dynamic foreign policy approach, the role of the Turkish Armed Forces in Africa has undergone a significant redefinition. This redefinition of Türkiye's military involvement in Africa took a monumental leap forward with the Somali operations and the highly notable Operation Thunderbolt.[8] In the pivotal year of 2015, in response to an internal political crisis in Somalia which necessitated the effective withdrawal of Turkish troops from the region, Türkiye embarked on an unprecedented endeavor by deploying soldiers to the sovereign state of Qatar. It was during this time that Türkiye successfully established its first-ever military base on Qatari soil.[9] Surpassing all previous endeavors, Türkiye's base in Qatar stands as the fifth and largest Turkish military base situated outside the borders of Türkiye itself. This remarkable base was established long before the occurrence of the military coup attempt; however, its magnitude and influence experienced substantial expansion and enhancement in the immediate aftermath of the failed coup plot.
After a slow and calculated initiation, Türkiye has remarkably expanded its comprehensive military presence in the vast and fertile lands of Africa. Over the course of the past four years, the nation has undertaken numerous noteworthy military ventures, forging strong alliances with a myriad of local, regional, and international partners.[10] Demonstrating a visionary strategy of "train and build", Türkiye's endeavors in Africa have predominantly centered around the invaluable aspect of military training and education, yielding remarkable results.[11] Türkiye's dynamic military prowess in Africa has manifested itself in diverse aspects and from various perspectives, solidifying its position as a formidable force. Prior to this remarkable transformation, Türkiye exercised cautious restraint in terms of projecting hard power. However, spurred by the paramount importance of safeguarding the region's stability, the country's Armed Forces have undergone a paradigm shift, actively engaging in a multitude of activities.[12] This robust engagement includes joint drills of utmost significance, fostering invaluable intelligence and security cooperation, establishing extensive military coordination mechanisms, forging technical military agreements, and unyielding dedication in resolving the operational conflicts plaguing Libya.[13] These awe-inspiring developments have unequivocally emanated from Ankara's overarching approach which necessitates an extensive evaluation of its international role and unreserved commitment to militaristic endeavors. Evidently, Türkiye's dedication towards these principles has led to its expanded involvement in colossal geographical spaces, proficiently allowing the nation to exert its influence in a far-reaching and holistic manner, leaving an indelible mark on the African continent.
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